Hannah Alphonso (Group A)

Case Study 2:

(i) the intervention: Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)

Behavioural interventions aim to teach and increase targeted positive behaviours and reduce or eliminate inappropriate or non-adaptive behaviours. Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) and Discrete Trial Training (DTT) continue to constitute the core features of most behavioural intervention programs.

Key components of ABA interventions

• Focus on measurable units of behaviour
• Problem, interfering behaviours are ignored, redirected, or discouraged through varied behavioural methods
• Programs are individualized to the student or group
• Setting: frequently begins in a one-to-one setting but can also be applied to small and large groups

(ii) its effectiveness (as reported in the journal article)

Over the past 40 years a large body of literature has shown the successful use of ABA-based procedures to reduce problem behaviour and increase appropriate skills for individuals with mental retardation (MR), autism, and related disorders. Several review articles and meta-analyses have been published summarizing this large body of literature.

ABA-based procedures represent best practices for individuals with autism and mental retardation. For example, the journal article cited that the American Association on Mental Retardation, the oldest and largest interdisciplinary organization of professionals concerned with mental retardation and related disabilities, designated ABA-based procedures for the treatment of behavioural problems with individuals with mental retardation and related disorders as “highly recommended” (their highest rating). Therefore, based on the scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of ABA-based procedures for treating problems associated with mental retardation and autism, various scientific organizations have concluded that ABA-based procedures are highly effective.

Several academic and trade journals that represent specific medical disciplines have published articles indicating that treatments for autism and mental retardation derived from ABA-based procedures are empirically supported treatments. For example, the journal Current Opinion in Psychiatry is a current opinion journal with the goal of assisting clinicians and researchers in keeping up-to-date with the large amount of information published in psychiatry. An article reviewing literature on the assessment and treatment of individuals with mental retardations and psychiatric disorders concluded that: “Interventions based on applied behaviour analysis have the strongest empirical basis, although there is some evidence that other therapies have promise.” (Hagopian, n.d.). Also, in the Journal Paediatrics, the official journal of the American Academy of Paediatrics, an article offering guidelines on scientifically supported treatments for childhood psychiatric disorders concluded: “The most efficacious psychosocial treatment for autism is applied behaviour analysis...” (Hagopian, n.d.).

(iii) your personal evaluation how the child will benefit from this intervention

In my opinion, Applied Behavioural Analysis is an option to consider helping Kim decrease disruptive bahviours. This is because ABA is an objective discipline. This means that ABA focuses on the reliable measurement and objective evaluation of an observable behaviour and reliable measurement requires that behaviours are defined objectively. ABA adopts methods of analysis of how to accomplish Kim’s disruptive behaviour changes evaluated within her familiar school and home setting.

(iv) suggestions

Kim becomes tired easily so the teacher has to be mindful that she cannot attempt an activity for a prolong period. The teacher can consider using a combination of proactive strategies, skills teaching strategies and consequence-based strategies to help Kim develop effective social and communication skills.

Coates, B and Swiezy (n.d.) explained that social story is an example of proactive strategy that the teacher can consider as an intervention activity in the classroom. The teacher can also consider using skills teaching such as video modelling to help her understand acceptable social behaviours. For consequence-based strategy, the teacher can implement a token/reward system when she observes Kim making progress in her social and communication development. The teacher should bear in mind that rewards can be through tangible and non-tangible methods.

References:

Hagopian, L. P. (n.d.). Applied Behavioral Analysis: Overview and Summary of Scientific Support. Retrieved 3 September 2009, from http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:HrYaj-fJkzUJ:www.feathouston.org/ABA%2520Overview%2520and%2520Summary%2520of%2520Scientific%2520Support.pdf+research+articles+on+Applied+Behavioural+Analysis&hl=en

Coates, H., B. S., Swiezy, N. (n.d.). Applied behavioural analysis: What is it?. Retrieved 3 September 2009, from http://www.handsinautism.org/pdf/whatisABA.pdf

Jumana Juzer Group B

Case Study 1

(i) the intervention

According to Jolivette, Gallagher, Morrier and Lambert, (2008), it is important to intervene with a child in such a way that is appropriate as well as prosocial behaviors are taught and modelled. The article suggested 3 intervention strategies used:

1. Fox, Dunlap, and Cushing (2002) states that establishing a strong, positive teacher, child relationship.
2. Allowing children to make choices has been proven to decrease difficult behaviour
3. Hyter (2003) states that communication modeling and scaffolding by a teacher or a speech and language specialist.

For these strategies to be effective, it should be implemented within the ongoing natural routines and activities of the child in both the classroom and home setting.


(ii) its effectiveness (as reported in the journal article)

Problem behaviours are commonly seen in everyday classroom. Parents and teachers are usually very affected by these problem behaviours. Hence, it is vital that the child’s educational environment be preventative in putting off the occurrence of problem behavior and be proactive in teaching expected, appropriate prosocial behaviors (Fox et al., 2003) as cited in as cited in (Jolivette et al., 2008).

Fox et al. (2003) identified 4 elements that contribute to the effectives of interventions. They are family focus, working relationships between family members and adults who work with their children, positive behavior support, and the child being in an inclusive classroom.

(a) A strong teacher adult relationship can promote prosocial behavior by increasing compliance and the development of self.

(b) Effectiveness of choice making with young children:

• Decrease the occurrence of challenging behaviour
• Assist young children in better understanding and experiencing the natural consequences of their actions.
• Social competence

Sigafoos (1998) suggested a four – process approach when using choice making to tackle challenging behaviours. First, determine how the child will indicate his or her choices. Secondly, specific situations in which the child will be provided with choice-making opportunities needs to be identified. Thirdly, the child’s inappropriate behavior should be matched with the specific type of choice-making opportunity provided. Lastly, teachers and caregivers need to make opportunities available for the child to make choices. (as cited in (Jolivette et al., 2008).

(c) When communicative modeling and scaffolding is implemented effectively, children demonstrate an increases in their language usage, decreases in problem behavior, and improvements in peer interactions.


(iii) your personal evaluation how the child will benefit from this intervention

I believe that if the strategies above were implemented, Annie would really benefit from them. Over time, Annie would learn alternative ways to communicate with her peers instead of biting.

Through these interventions;

1. Annie’s peers will slowly learn to accept Annie for who she is and learn communicate with Annie in a way that promotes effective communication for both parties.
2. Eventually, Annie’s self-esteem will boost as she becomes more confident in communicating and learning to accept her difference.
3. Children usually look up to their teachers as role models. Hence, it is essential for teachers to model the effective ways of communicating, in which Annie can manipulate.

(iv) your suggestions how you can make adjustments to cater to the needs of the
child and to facilitate integration of the child / the intervention activity into
your classroom.

I would suggest the usage of picture cards. Picture cards are another alternative for Annie to express to her classmates the way she feels instead of biting. Picture cards with basic icons would be easy for Annie and her friends to interpret. With the help of these picture cards, Annie’s peers would understand Annie’s needs and wants.

It is also equally important for the teacher to work closely with Annie’s parents and her therapists so as to maximize the effects of her intervention. The teacher also needs to do more research on suitable ways to help improve on Annie’s language skills. When a teacher is knowledgeable on a child’s strengths and weakness, the teacher is able to make appropriate judgment and improvisation to the interventions.



Reference:
Jolivette, K., Gallagher, P., Morrier, M., & Lambert, R. (2008, June). Preventing Problem Behaviors in Young Children with Disabilities. Exceptionality, 16(2), 78-92. Retrieved September 05, 2009, doi:10.1080/09362830801981195

Ong Sock Yee (Group B)

Case Study 1: Annie

i) About the intervention
ii) Effectiveness

Promoting Awareness of Sounds in Speech (PASS) program is a comprehensive phonological awareness early intervention curriculum designed for preschool children with speech and language impairments. The PASS program was implemented with 11 preschool children with speech and/or language impairments. It focuses on the sound structure of spoken language. It consists of detailed lessons, specific learning objectives ordered in a developmentally appropriate sequence, rhyming, sound blending and sound segmentation (Roth, Troia, Worthington, & Handy, 2006).

Moreover, the classroom curriculum also incorporates Orton–Gillingham-Stillman (1992) multi-sensory approach for teaching alphabetic principal (as cited in Roth, et al, 2006). A variety of play-based and learning activities including music and the arts serves as mechanism for establishing grapheme-phoneme association that helps supports the PASS program.

This is supported by Gilliam & Mcfadden 1988 that children 4 to 8 had shown reliably significant progress on phonemic awareness tasks after being exposed to other phonological awareness interventions. It includes, judging initial sound, sameness, identifying initial and final phonemes (as cited in Roth, et al, 2006).

After the PASS intervention program, the 11 preschool children demonstrated substantial improvement in their awareness of sounds in speech for example, improved blending ability.

(iii) How will the child benefit from this intervention?

(In assumption that Annie’s facial deformity is due to Cleft lip and Palate)

Annie’s difficulties in speech, emotional, social and behavioural issues are common traits seen in other children with Cleft Lip and Palate (Shah & Wong, 1980). One of the main reason, that constitutes to Annie’s social, emotional and behavioural difficulties is due to difficulty expressing herself in speech.

I feel that Annie would benefit from the PASS intervention as speech delays is one of the main issue due to cleft lip and palate. Hypernasal speech is the most common speech defect in children with Cleft Lip and Palate (Shah & Wong, 1980). Hence by understanding how PASS works we can take into consideration the phonological shape and phonetic composition of words to be taught.

This allow us to teach Annie words that is within the range of her consonant inventory before expanding her vocabulary with words with new sounds. Words with simple syllable structure that include nasals are (e.g., CV, CVC, and CVCV). This is important as we want to build on the child’s strength and to gradually build on her confidence in pronouncing and using words she is comfortable with. I believe that the PASS intervention program would contribute in helping Annie to develop good speech habits. This would allow Annie to enhance her ability in expressing herself that would help her to cope with her emotions and to relate better to her peers.

Moreover, by using a multi-sensory approach to reinforce alphabetical principal through a variety of mediums Annie would get to learn holistically. It also encourages Annie to express her thoughts, feelings and ideas more freely using other mediums instead of just through verbalization.



(iv) your suggestions to cater to the needs of the child

Collaboration with Paraprofessionals

To better cater to Annie’s needs I would engage with Annie’s multi-disciplinary team that focuses on early intervention and treatments for her. This would include hearing, speech, dental, medical, psychological, surgical paraprofessionals and Annie’s family members.
This is crucial as the paraprofessionals consistently share information about Annie’s condition which enables us to have a more holistic picture and how it can be further improved. One example is that if we are informed that Annie has ear infections commonly seen in children with Cleft Lip and Palate it allows me to re-adjust the classroom environment to suit her needs. I would do so by sitting Annie nearer to me, reduce noise level in class using carpets and also to use visual cue cards.

In another example, I would consult with Annie’s dentist to see whether Annie’s biting is due to oral discomfort. If so what are the methods I can use to help reduce Annie’s oral discomfort. By doing so it allows me to tackle the root cause of the problem instead of merely treating the symptoms. To help the family better cope with Annie’s condition is through communicating with them regular and helping to see that Annie is as capable as any other child. If needed I would refer Annie’s parents to other useful resources.

Improving Annie’s Emotional and Social Behaviours

To promote Annie’s self-concept and self-acceptance, I would point out the positive attributes in others that do not only involve physical appearance. Furthermore, I would focus on Annie as an individual with her own strengths, interests and abilities instead on her cleft. I would also model appropriate ways of expressing various emotions through labeling the different feelings. Moreover, I would adjustment the classroom environment by including soft elements in the learning centers, for example at the library corner they would be place for individual area where any child could retreat in. In the art corner I would include easy access to dough for Annie and other children to pound on, in the literacy corner I would encourage Annie and other children to write or draw in their personal journal as a form of emotional outlet.

Improving Annie’s Speech and Communication

One of the ways, for Annie forge greater communication among Annie and her peers is through introducing buddy systems. I would also provide ample opportunities for Annie to participate in class both verbally and non-verbally through different modes of communication, for instance, sign language and creative drama. It is also crucial to provide Annie time to express herself and not to interrupt or fill in gaps for her and reminding the rest of the children to do so. I would also role model good speech patterns. By keeping up-to-date on Annie’s accomplishments in her speech therapy it allows me to reinforce the desirable behaviour through positive reinforcements.

Reference:

Roth, F. P., Troia, G. A., Worthington, C. K., & Handy, D. (2006) Promoting awareness of sounds in speech (PASS): The effects of intervention and stimulus characteristics on the blending performance of preschool children with communication impairments, pp. 67-88. Retrieved on September, 2, 2009, from JSTOR database.

Shah, P, C. & Wong, D. (1980). Management of children with cleft lip and palate, pp. 19–24. Retrieved on September, 2, 2009, from PubMed Central database.

Ong Sock Yee (group B)

Constance Wong (Group A)

Case Study 1: Annie

I selected this case study allows me to explore ways, other than PECS, to communicate with children with disabilities.

Area of Intervention: Communication skills

The intervention: Makaton
Makaton is a pictorial and sign language communication system, developed in a hospital in England in the 1970s (Sellars, 2006). The Makaton design makes use of pictographic representations, the British sign language and encourages language development (The Makaton Charity, 2008). Similar to the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), picture symbol cards are used in Makaton. However, Makaton encourages its users to use speech along with signs and British sign language. Makaton also taps onto the use of facial expression, eye contact and body language in the process of communication (The Makaton Charity, 2008).

Effectiveness

Makaton is effective in helping to develop communication in persons with speech difficulties (Makaton Vocabulary Department as cited in Sellar, 2006). This method has been around for approximately 30 years and has been used by nurses to communicate with persons with speech difficulties in England.

In addition, Makaton can be adapted to other cultures accordingly and hence can be applied in the Singapore context. It uses very basic black and white pictorial symbols which make it easy to draw, should there be no picture card. Furthermore, sign language is also an alternative way to communicate. The main thing is about using speech while sign language and pictorial cards are aids to support the communication process.

The use of gesture, facial expression and body language is considered as communication and will allow the child to communicate in acceptable behaviours (Sellar, 2006; The Makaton Charity, 2008). Moreover, gestures are easier to learn as compared to verbal speech, because it’s the first language that we learn.

Evaluation

Makaton has a developed list of everyday words with pictorial symbols to help Annie if she is unable to use sign language and speech to communicate her needs.

Moreover, when using Makaton, Annie will be encouraged to say the word as she signs the word and match it with a suitable picture card (Sellars, 2008). This allows for the development of verbal language, at the same time, it helps Annie be understood. This will help reduce Annie’s frustration and hence the frequency of Annie’s biting in class. With encouragement to use Makaton, being able to communicate with others will also increase Annie’s confidence, so that she would not shy away when trying to correspond with peers.

Suggestions

Firstly, if I were the class teacher, I would need to learn and recognize the symbols used in Makaton as well as common sign language. I would also need to teach the class of children the more commonly used words so that the other class children can understand Annie. One resource that I can tap on to teach the class Makaton is through simple online lessons for children, available on BBC’s Cbeeies website.

Next, typically in a classroom for 6 year olds, labels would be written in words with little or no pictures. To include Annie, instructions and labels in the school has to reflect more pictorial symbols so as to help Annie and the classmates associate the symbols to the object in the classroom. For example, at the stationery corner, other than labeling “pencils”, a pictorial symbol of a pencil would be placed together with the word. If Annie needs help from her friends to get a pencil, she can show they the symbol for a pencil and her classmates would know what she wants. Hence, hen labels have pictorial symbols, it helps Annie communicate her needs and helps the children match the pictorial symbols when Annie needs to use a particular object in the room.

Lastly, I would want to educate children about accepting individuality. I can do this by reading books like Kevin Henkes’ Chrysanthemum, using story telling to teach children about being special and becoming aware of the different people around us. This would have an effect of Annie’s self esteem and she would not feel so awkward about have a disability.

References

Sellars, G. (2006, November). Learning to communicate with children with disabilities. (Cover story). Paediatric Nursing, 18(9), 26-28. Retrieved September 7, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

The Makaton Charity. (2008). Information for parents and carers of children who use makaton. Makaton. Retrieved Septemeber 7, 2009, from http://www.makaton.org/about/ parents.htm

Goh Yi Huey, Group A

Case Study 1

Judging from the description in the case study, Annie appears to face difficulties in behavioural and social difficulties with regards to social communication, despite the fact that she is on par with her peers in terms of academic performance.
This shows that her main difficulty faced is in knowing and using the appropriate forms of communication behaviours in group interactions, besides having the linguistic skills to do so.

Thus, this report will look into an area of intervention for Annie’s social and emotional developmental skills through a strategy used.

(i) Intervention – “Facilitating peer-group entry in Kindergartners with impairments in social communication”

It is shown through various studies that children with language impairments face difficulties in the area of social communication (Brinton & Fujiki, 1997; Craig & Washington, 1993; Guralnick, Connor, Hammond, Gottman, & Kinnish, 1996; Redmond & Rice, 1998, 2002; Rice, Sell, & Hadley, 1991, as cited in Beilingson & Olswang, 2003). The journal elaborates that children have to find ways in initiating peer interaction before they can be accepted by peers.

A peer-entry treatment sequence was devised based on the research of Dodge et al. (1983), Hadley and Schuele (1998), and Brinton and Fujiki (2000). The treatment in this study facilitated the peer-group entry process by combining the use of a prop with either a low-risk behavior (mimicking the peer group) or a high-risk behavior (making a group-oriented statement).

This intervention strategy proposed focuses on three essential components:
- ‘The child is assigned a role to establish him or her as part of the group’,
- ‘The child is prompted by an adult to initiate interactions’, and
- ‘The child is given a highly valued prop (toy) for the purpose of integrating him or her into the peer group’. (Hadley & Schuele, 1998, as cited in Beilingson & Olswang, 2003).


The children who participated in this intervention shared similar behavioral backgrounds with Annie. For instance, most of them were on par with the cognitive developmental milestones for their age, but appeared to face difficulties in their social communication during play or interaction with other friends. The procedures for this intervention included having this group of children to initiate play with another group of typically developing children in a classroom setting. The supporting staff in this intervention included a ‘head teacher with a master’s degree in special education, an assistant teacher who was completing her degree in special education, and a full-time aide’ (Beilingson & Olswang, 2003).

This intervention strategy consisted of treatment and probe sessions. The treatment sessions were responsible in teaching the targeted children appropriate actions and behaviours in initiating peer interaction. High-risk strategies such as the use of verbal statements were taught. After each treatment session, the targeted child would be required to initiate play with a host peer with the use of strategies that were learnt. Prompts were provided by the treatment provider as needed, until the child has made a successful attempt in peer-group entry.

The probe sessions were responsible in collecting information about the progress of targeted children through the use of observation records. This is so that further adjustments (if necessary) could be made to facilitate each child’s progress to the maximum possibility.

(ii) Its effectiveness

During the treatment phase, there was little change in the number of low-risk behaviors in all the 3 targeted children, but an increase in the use of high-risk behaviors during peer-group entry.
Through the probe data collected, it was revealed that all 3 children demonstrated a slight increase in usage of props accompanying high-risk behaviors.
All the children continued with the using props and high-risk behaviours during the withdrawal phrase (after treatment phrase), with little or no change in them between these 2 phrases.
Through the treatment phrase, all the children demonstrated increased cooperative play, with 2 of the 3 children showing rather immediate improvements with the introduction of treatment. In addition, cooperative play was showed more in all the children, than solitary play during the treatment phrase. At the end of the treatment phrase, all 3 children demonstrated levels of cooperative play approaching, with 1 of them exceeding in progress as compared to the other 2.

(iii) How will Annie benefit from this intervention

I believe that Annie will benefit greatly from this intervention. Appropriate guidance will be provided for her to ease into this intervention over time. From that, Annie will be able to learn and practice appropriate behaviours that allow her to be more easily accepted into peer- group interactions or play. In addition, it will decrease the frequency of her using inappropriate behaviors such as biting – which will definitely cause injuries in her peers – in social situations in the future. With the change in her behavior as this intervention is implemented, it will also help Annie’s friends to be more accepting towards her as time passes.

In a nutshell, through this intervention, Annie will be able to learn social skills such as appropriate behaviours in initiating social interactions, communicating with others, and engaging in cooperative play.

(iv) Suggestions to making adjustments to cater to the needs of the child and to facilitate integration of the child / the intervention activity into classroom

Before introducing this intervention, there would be a need to provide an explanation of this to the rest of the children in the classroom. This is so that they will better understand the reasons as to why Annie demonstrates certain inappropriate behaviour sometimes, which thus require her to undergo this intervention so that appropriate facilitation and help is provided for her.

I would implement this intervention on a regular basis and apply it as and whenever I can, when the opportunity arises. This is so that Annie gets to practice the techniques and behaviours learnt in this intervention as often as possible. This would definitely to speed up her improvement.

In addition, I will form a partnership with Annie’s speech therapist and parents so that appropriate interventions can be facilitated for Annie to the best possibility. By working with Annie’s parents and speech therapist, opinions and observations about her progress and disability can be provided through different perspectives. This would help in formulating more effective strategies in helping Annie with her behavioural and social difficulties.


Reference:

Beilinson, J.S. & Olswang, L.B. (2003, April). Facilitating Peer-Group Entry in Kindergartners With Impairments in Social Communication. Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools, 34(2), 154. Retrieved 1 September , 2009, from Education Research Complete database.

Tan Yun Ping, Group A

Case study 1

Intervention: Better play times training

According to Woolf (2008), better play times training is an effective play based intervention that was practice in an EBD primary school. It is a weekly half an hour play sessions to a child for a period of at least 12 sessions. This intervention was based on the belief of a handful of theorist including Erikson. The goal of this training is to help the child understand and manage one’s emotions and feelings.

Woolf (2008) mentions, “The child is in charge of the play” (p. 2).Two children will have a special playtime in a room once a week. They will get to choose what they want to play and teacher will facilitate but not intervening the play.

Effectiveness

According to Woolf (2008), all the 5 pairs of children showed improvement with accordance to the assessments criteria (checklist and questionnaires). The three most significant changes were; improvement in the children self-esteem and ability to work through conflicts and communicate their struggles, participating staffs got to understand their children better, and the children were “more able to accept and be accepted as they are… positive about their own strengths… positive about their attributes, e.g., be happy, be clever” (p. 11).

How to apply to the child?

In the case study, it was mentioned that the child displays emotional and behavioural problem with her peers. I interpret that she displays inappropriate behavior mainly because she was not able to express herself verbally as she face difficulties in her speech and communication skills. Hence, I feel that Better Play Times will provide opportunities to learn to interact with another child as they play together, and also allowing teacher to observe and facilitate her needs. One way is to help the child focus on their strengths and positive attributes.

Kostelnik, Soderman and Whiren (2007) state that children learn best through play. This is because they are very familiar with it. It also promotes fun and encourages the child to explore problems and solutions as she is doing things that she enjoys. During the process of play, child might encounter discomfort, taking risk, anxiety and uncertainty. But, they will have control over these problems. Hence, the child will get to enjoy the process. Also, when partnered with just one child, his or her focus will be on the child and negative behavioral problem may be minimized as there are less distractions. With the play materials, they can use both verbal and non verbal to express their feelings. This will help the child realized how to use non verbal to communicates and to practice her speech. Therefore, it helps the child to form positive relationships with her classmates as they played and interacts.

Into an inclusive classroom

Personally, I like the idea of using play to help children cope with their difficulties and overcome it. I think Better Play Times will help Annie as well as her friend. To include Better Play Times into the curriculum, teacher can group the children in pairs and they will take turn to play in the special play room. They may have a chart to take note of the turn taking. At the end of the week or month, teacher can gather the children in small group of 4 to 5 children. They are to talk about their experiences. In this way, it provides Annie opportunities to share and listen to her peers.

The materials and instructions used must be creative so that children will enjoy and not get bored overtime. As the class teacher, he or she must make the effort to know each child well. With that knowledge, play materials and instructions design can incorporate each child’s interest, learning styles and their needs.

References
Woolf, A. (March 2008). Better play times training – theory and practice in an EBD primary school. Emotional and behavioural difficulties. 13 (1), 1-15. Retrieved on 4 September 2009, from Academic Search Premier

Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K. & Whiren, A. P. (2007). Developing appropriate
curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education. (4th ed.). Pearson: Merrill/Prentice hall

Lim Cai Yan-Group B

Case Study 1- Nurturing social experience of Annie in classroom

(i) The intervention
Recchia and Soucacou (2006) had conducted a research to observe how the teachers’ interaction with children would affect their social experience in the classroom. "For children with developmental delays, challenges engaging in social play, negotiating conflicts, and maintaining friendships appear to persist beyond early childhood and if left unsupported may lead to later social exclusion and adjustment difficulties" (Recchia & Soucacou, 2006, ¶2, as cited in Guralnick, 2001; Guralnick et al., 2006). Therefore, teacher plays an important role to support and nurture children’s social experiences in class.

The observation was conducted in three preschools (two preschool special education classrooms and one inclusive preschool classroom). All these schools served children between 3 and 5 years old with a variety of disabilities. The teachers observed in the three schools were all female with a master's degree in early childhood special education. In the study, teachers’ behaviors were the main focus and the researchers were observing out how the teacher’s interactions with the children would affect the children’s behavior in class.

After carrying out the observations in the three schools, the researchers had derived with four themes which focus on the area of nurturing children’s social experiences in classroom. For each theme, they had also come out with three strategies that the teacher had used to support social experiences during the observation.

Themes:
1. Adaptations that supported individual children's positive social experiences.
Strategy 1: Teachers allowed children the time and space they needed to explore their environment independently before supporting their participation in the group.
Strategy 2: Teachers honored and respected individual differences by encouraging children to express their individual skills and needs in the group.
Strategy 3: Teachers provided individual adaptations such as extra visual cues or physical input to enhance children's involvement in social activities.

2. Positive emotional connections between teachers and students
Strategy 1: Teachers acknowledged and validated children's feelings in both verbal and physical ways.
Strategy 2: Teachers encouraged children to take an active role when redirecting them gently to more appropriate behaviors.
Strategy 3: Teachers created special one-on-one moments with each child to nurture teacher-child relationships.

3. Ways in which teachers promoted positive social engagements and interactions among peers.
Strategy 1: Teachers actively engaged in children's play to help them initiate and maintain positive interactions with peers, and they modeled what children needed to do to show peers that they were their friends.
Strategy 2: Teachers set up activities for children that encouraged high levels of peer participation and peer interaction.
Strategy 3: Teachers encouraged more socially competent children to initiate interactions with their peers, modeling appropriate language and social behaviors.

4. Ways in which teachers promoted positive conflict resolutions.
Strategy 1: Teachers spoke for the children in order to explain their behaviors to others.
Strategy 2: Teachers diverted conflicts by helping children find more appropriate ways to interact with their peers.
Strategy 3: Teachers found ways to scaffold appropriate social responses through structured tasks in the classroom.

(ii) Its effectiveness (as reported in the journal article)
The strategies listed above are used by the teacher during the observation that had nurtured the children social experiences in the classroom. Not only has the child with special needs benefited from the strategies used by the teacher, but also the rest of the peers in the class. The teacher’s positive interactions with the child with special needs had resulted changes in the child’s negative behaviors in class. For example, in one of the observation, a teacher had encouraged the children to be kind to their peers through modeling the appropriate behaviors. Overall, her supportive presence and contagious enthusiasm had created a positive classroom climate.

(iii) Your personal evaluation how the child will benefit from this intervention
I feel that a same strategy may not work effectively for every child. However, Annie’s teacher is encouraged to try out the strategies listed above and also, she has to observe how each of these strategies can help to improve Annie’s social interactions with her peer. In addition, Annie’s teacher must be observant and flexible to modify the strategies to suit Annie’s needs.

Furthermore, I believe that in order for the strategies to work effectively on Annie, the teacher plays an important role to promote positive interactions between Annie and her peers. She has to be flexible to adjust the environment and activities and willing to make emotional connection with the Annie.

(iv) Your suggestions how you can make adjustments to cater to the needs of the child and to facilitate integration of the child / the intervention activity into your classroom.
I feel that Annie’s teacher needs to seek cooperation from the other children in the class to work together to improve Annie’s social experiences in the classroom. I feel that it is essential for Annie’s teacher to build up respect and care among the children in the beginning.

For example, Annie’s teacher can use storytelling to highlight the moral such as respecting friends or showing care towards friends. Annie’s teacher can also promote awareness about children with special needs through story telling too. I believe that if Annie’s peers displayed more positive social interaction in class, it would definitely influence Annie and the strategies may work more effectively, together with her peers’ support and understanding.

Reference:
Recchia, S. L. & Soucacou, E. P. (2006). Nurturing Social Experience in Three Early Childhood Special Education Classrooms, 8(2). Retrieved August 29, 2009, from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v8n2/recchia.html, Early Childhood Research & Practice (ECRP) database.